1. Introduction

Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) has emerged as a central strategy for advancing compact, mixed-use, and pedestrian-friendly urban districts organized around high-capacity public transit systems. The concept, popularized in the 1990s, emphasizes the integration of land use and transport planning to reduce automobile dependence, lower greenhouse gas emissions, and promote walkability [1], [2]. Empirical research demonstrates that when TOD is implemented effectively, it not only increases transit ridership but also contributes to higher residential satisfaction, improved environmental quality, and more sustainable patterns of urban growth [3], [4].

While TOD principles have been widely applied across North America, Europe, and East Asia, their transferability to hot-arid, car-oriented cities remains underexplored. The practical success of TOD is not determined solely by transit accessibility but also by the microscale qualities of the street environment that shape everyday user experiences [5]. Elements such as sidewalk continuity, pedestrian crossings, tree canopy, building articulation, and mixed land use directly influence whether individuals perceive a transit corridor as walkable, safe, and vibrant [6], [7]. Even modest improvements to these attributes, such as increasing sidewalk widths or planting shade trees, have been shown to enhance pedestrian comfort, encourage cycling, and strengthen perceptions of safety [8], [9].

In many rapidly growing cities, however, TOD implementation faces challenges that stem from fragmented pedestrian infrastructure, zoning codes that discourage mixed land uses, and a lack of climate-sensitive design standards. For instance, Jafari and Scholz [10] note that in Gulf cities, extensive road expansion and dispersed urban form often undermine pedestrian connectivity. Similarly, urban settlements with irregular plots and limited infrastructure, as observed in South Asian contexts, further constrain opportunities for incremental streetscape improvement [11]. These examples underscore the importance of adapting TOD principles to local realities rather than applying universal blueprints.

Microscale features are particularly critical in shaping public perceptions of TOD corridors. Sidewalk width has long been recognized as a determinant of pedestrian flow, accessibility, and informal street activities; widths below two meters often restrict movement and reduce comfort, while sidewalks of three meters or more promote social interaction and commercial vibrancy [12]. Similarly, tree canopy coverage provides thermal comfort and enhances walkability in hot climates, with studies indicating that shaded streets are consistently rated as more pleasant and livable [13]. Frequent pedestrian crossings are also essential to accessibility, as greater crossing intervals often discourage safe and direct movement along busy arterial corridors [14]. In addition, façade articulation and active frontages contribute to perceptions of safety, surveillance, and retail attractiveness, while inset parking bays can balance vehicular access with pedestrian needs [15], [16].

Although the benefits of these features have been widely studied in temperate urban environments, evidence from hot-arid, automobile-dependent cities remains scarce. Furthermore, most TOD research has historically focused on macro-level impacts, such as ridership or land-use patterns, rather than user perceptions of microscale urban design features [17], [18]. Yet understanding these perceptions is critical for ensuring that TOD policies are socially inclusive, culturally grounded, and contextually appropriate. Recent methodological advances, including visual-preference surveys and stated-choice experiments, provide powerful tools for capturing stakeholder preferences before large-scale infrastructure investments are made [19], [20].

This study contributes to that agenda by systematically investigating stakeholder preferences for microscale streetscape attributes in emerging TOD corridors. Building on the literature on walkability, sustainable mobility, and public-realm design, it explores how residents and commercial users prioritize features such as sidewalks, shade cover, crossings, cycling facilities, and land-use mix. By focusing on user-informed evidence, the research seeks to inform climate-sensitive and culturally relevant TOD guidelines that enhance both mobility and livability. In doing so, it underscores the argument that TOD is not a static model to be transplanted but a flexible framework that must respond to the environmental and social contexts of each city.

2. Literature Review

2. 1. Global Evidence on TOD Impacts

Over the past three decades, Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) has become one of the most influential strategies for advancing sustainable urban growth. Defined by the integration of transport investments with compact and mixed-use development, TOD seeks to create districts where walking, cycling, and transit are prioritized over private automobiles. The approach emerged in response to the inefficiencies of low-density suburban sprawl, emphasizing higher densities, diverse land uses, and station-centered design to restructure mobility patterns and urban form [21].

A substantial body of research confirms that TOD delivers multiple benefits that extend beyond mobility improvements. Concentrating development around transit hubs reduces automobile reliance, shortens travel distances, and promotes energy-efficient land-use configurations [22],  [23]. TOD has also been shown to support public health outcomes by encouraging active travel, while simultaneously reducing congestion and greenhouse gas emissions through modal shifts [24]. Equally important, it enhances social equity by improving access to employment and essential services for populations traditionally underserved by car-centric planning [25].

Comparative international evidence further illustrates the breadth of TOD’s impacts. In Europe, TOD practices have been linked to higher public transport ridership and long-term urban resilience [26]. In East Asia, dense, mixed-use station areas have attracted substantial pedestrian activity and boosted land values, demonstrating TOD’s capacity to influence real estate markets [27]. In China, empirical studies reveal increases in residential property prices near metro corridors, underlining TOD’s role in shaping economic development [28]. North American experiences likewise confirm that TOD can reduce commuting times while enhancing urban design quality and neighborhood livability [29].

A critical insight across these contexts is that TOD outcomes are shaped not only by transit accessibility but also by the quality of the pedestrian environment. Walkability, human-scale design, and high-quality streetscapes have been consistently identified as decisive factors influencing adoption and long-term success of TOD schemes [30].

2. 2. Middle East and Gulf Countries

Despite extensive global evidence, the adoption of Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) in Middle Eastern and Gulf contexts has been inconsistent. Cities such as Doha, Dubai, and Muscat are actively expanding transit infrastructure, yet persistent challenges linked to climate, socio-cultural preferences, and entrenched car dependency continue to constrain outcomes. In Qatar, for example, the launch of the Doha Metro has been accompanied by plans for mixed-use station precincts; however, research highlights that extreme heat, low levels of shade, and lacking pedestrian infrastructure undermine ridership potential and limit the vibrancy of transit corridors [31].

Similarly, in Dubai, the metro system has stimulated property development and increased density near stations, but scholars note that weak last-mile connectivity and limited walkability hinder its ability to deliver holistic TOD benefits [32]. In Oman, the proposed Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system in Muscat represents an important shift from road expansion toward transit-based urban development. Yet studies emphasize that fragmented sidewalks, scarce shading, and low-density zoning regulations constrain the walkability and accessibility of potential TOD areas [33], [34]. Moreover, the lack of empirical evidence on user perceptions of microscale streetscape attributes across Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) cities means that planning often relies on design standards developed for temperate contexts without sufficient localization. This gap reinforces the need for evidence-based research on stakeholder preferences to ensure that TOD in Gulf cities is adapted to their distinct climatic and socio-cultural conditions.

2.3.Street-Level Design and User Experience

Across contexts, TOD’s long-term success is mediated by the design quality of its street-level environment. Even where high-capacity transit is available, poorly designed pedestrian infrastructure can deter users from walking or cycling, thus undermining TOD objectives [7], [35]. Elements such as sidewalk continuity, shading, frequent crossings, and active building frontages directly influence perceptions of safety, accessibility, and comfort [6], [36].

Street-level design is particularly critical in hot-arid environments, where extreme temperatures can significantly discourage walking. Studies demonstrate that higher levels of tree canopy cover substantially improve thermal comfort and perceived walkability in hot climates. Studies in hot-arid and temperate cities show that higher street-tree canopy cover substantially improves microclimate and perceived comfort, and that moderate (≈35%) to high (≥70%) cover yields measurably better thermal conditions for pedestrians and higher comfort evaluations; thus, vegetation plays an essential role in enabling walkable TOD corridors [37], [38]. Collectively, these findings emphasize that TOD is not simply a question of transit provision but of creating public spaces that actively invite and support non-motorized mobility.

Building on these insights, this study focuses on nine microscale attributes repeatedly identified in the literature as fundamental to TOD success. Each variable is explained below:

• Sidewalk Width: Adequate sidewalk width is vital to walkability as it determines how comfortably people can pass one another, accommodate mobility aids and strollers, and pause without obstructing flow [39], [40]. Guidance on people-first streets emphasizes maintaining a clear, obstruction-free pedestrian zone and placing furniture, trees, and signage in a separate furnishing/buffer zone. This spatial organization increases effective capacity and accessibility and supports inclusive design near transit, where footfall is highest [41].
• Pedestrian Crossing Frequency: Frequent, visible, and well-designed crossings are critical to perceived safety and to the willingness of people to walk along and across busy corridors [42]. Where crossings are scarce or hard to recognize, pedestrians either detour, reducing walkability, or take unsafe risks, undermining the intent of transit-oriented choices [43]. Performance-based assessment frameworks show that crossing design such as markings, refuge islands, signalization, approach speeds, and waiting conditions that directly shapes pedestrian level of service. Improving these elements increases compliance and confidence, which is especially important around station areas with heavy foot traffic [44].
• Tree-Canopy Cover: Street trees provide shade, reduce mean radiant temperature, and mitigate heat stress. It include benefits that are particularly decisive in hot-arid climates. Experimental and field studies demonstrate that vegetative shade substantially improves physical thermal comfort for people on foot [38]. Beyond biophysical cooling, greenery contributes to psychological comfort and perceived walkability by softening hard surfaces, defining space, and encouraging longer stays outdoors. Evidence from real streets confirms that higher levels of street greenery are associated with improved thermal appraisal and preference for walking [45].
• Cycling Infrastructure: Providing designated bikeways, especially physically separated facilities, raises perceived safety, lowers injury risk, and supports adoption among risk-averse riders. This matters in car-oriented contexts where traffic speeds and volumes otherwise suppress cycling near transit [46]. At the network scale, coherent and connected bikeway systems correlate with higher cycling levels and more multimodal trips to stations. Strategic provision of painted or protected links to transit nodes helps extend the catchment of BRT and rail beyond typical walking distances [47].
• Parking Layout: How curb space is organized shapes the pedestrian realm. Converting continuous parallel parking into inset bays or short-stay/loading areas can clarify the walking zone, reduce dooring and sight-line conflicts, and support main-street activity without sacrificing access [48]. Policy research shows that unmanaged or excessive on-street parking degrades public space and induces extra driving. Pricing and right-sizing curb supply, paired with designs that protect sidewalks, improve street performance and align curb uses with TOD goals [49].
• Building Height: Height influences enclosure, wind, shade, and the legibility of the street wall. Human-scaled mid-rise environments, when paired with active ground floors, tend to support comfortable walking and clear spatial definition around stations [50]. Very tall or very low buildings can undermine the pedestrian experience if not carefully designed: extreme vertical scales may generate downdrafts or overshadowing, while sparse low-rise forms can dilute intensity near high-capacity transit. Managing height in relation to street width and public-realm quality is therefore critical [51].
• Façade Articulation: Transparent, permeable, and fine-grained frontages, with doors and windows facing the street, encourage passive surveillance, retail visibility, and a sense of safety. Walkability research consistently links façade articulation to positive pedestrian judgments of urban design quality [7]. Conversely, blank walls and reflective or heavily tinted frontages erode interest and reduce perceived security by limiting visual exchange between inside and outside. Station-area vitality depends on façades that invite looking, entering, and lingering at ground level [52].
• Land-Use Mix: Diversity of uses near transit concentrates daily needs within walking distance, lengthens the hours of activity, and reduces the need for car trips. Classic empirical work shows that density, diversity, and design jointly influence travel behavior, with land-use mix a key lever [53]. Contemporary studies also associate mixed uses with urban vibrancy that is more people present at different times of day, which supports safety and local commerce. Balanced mixes around stations help convert transit accessibility into everyday convenience [54].
• Building Setback: Shallow or build-to-line setbacks strengthen continuity and enclosure, keeping storefronts and entries close to the pedestrian zone and improving wayfinding. This edge condition is central to legible, people-scaled streets in station areas [55]. Evidence from dense cities shows that setback depth also interacts with microclimate: poorly configured deep setbacks can expose walkers to heat, while context-appropriate edges and shading improve pedestrian thermal comfort along key links to transit [56].

These variables collectively provide a multidimensional framework for assessing the microscale design features of TOD corridors.

2.4. Research Gap

Despite abundant global research on TOD, two critical gaps persist in Gulf contexts. First, much of the guidance still derives from temperate or very high-density settings, raising questions about transferability to hot-arid, automobile-dependent cities. Case studies in Doha and Dubai underscore this issue: evaluations of station areas highlight the need to adapt TOD to local climate, urban morphologies, and last-mile realities rather than importing standards wholesale [57, 58].

Second, empirical work in the GCC rarely applies visual stated-preference methods to quantify how users trade off microscale streetscape attributes; instead, most studies rely on audit tools, site observation, or policy assessments. Recent research in Doha uses case-study and census/mapping approaches to appraise TOD readiness, while Muscat studies validate walkability instruments and document pedestrian barriers, but they do not estimate preference weights for specific design features [59]. This gap motivates the present study’s focus on stakeholder preferences for TOD corridors in Gulf cities, where climatic and socio-cultural conditions require tailored, evidence-based design guidance.

3. Methodology

3. 1. Selection of Attributes

To systematically examine how microscale streetscape characteristics shape user preferences in prospective transit-oriented development (TOD) areas, a stated-preference experiment was conducted. The experiment incorporated nine design attributes that recur in TOD design manuals and walkability research while also reflecting specific conditions in Muscat’s planned bus rapid transit (BRT) corridors. The inclusion of these attributes was based on three considerations: (i) their frequent appearance in TOD quality indicators [60], [24], (ii) evidence from empirical walkability studies highlighting their influence on pedestrian behavior [48], and (iii) on-site reconnaissance along Muscat’s BRT alignment that revealed existing constraints and opportunities.

Each attribute was represented at three contextually realistic levels to capture meaningful differences in design outcomes. The attributes ranged from pedestrian-scale elements, such as sidewalk width and crossing frequency, to broader urban-form features like building height, land-use mix, and setbacks. In this way, the experiment bridged both streetscape detail and urban form composition, offering a holistic framework to test stakeholder trade-offs (Figure 1).

3. 2. Experimental Design and Scenario Development

The full factorial combination of nine attributes at three levels would have produced 19,683 possible streetscape profiles, an unmanageable number for respondents. To maintain both efficiency and statistical validity, an orthogonal fractional-factorial design was generated using SPSS Orthoplan. This reduced the universe of options into 36 statistically independent profiles per station area.

Four planned BRT station precincts, namely Al -Mabailah, Burj Al Sahwa, Ghala, and Ruwi, were selected as representative case studies. Each area embodies a distinct urban context: Al Mabailah as a peripheral residential zone, Burj Al Sahwa as a regional gateway node, Ghala as an employment and industrial hub, and Ruwi as the traditional central business district. For each station, 36 unique profiles were modelled in SketchUp and rendered in Lumion 12, producing 144 photorealistic street scenes.

Visual consistency was ensured by rendering from a fixed eye-level viewpoint (≈ 1.6 m) under uniform midday lighting conditions. Only the nine target attributes varied across scenes, while other urban features were standardized. This approach reflects best practices in visual-preference research, which emphasize isolating experimental variables while maintaining realism.

The 36 profiles were randomly paired into 18 binary choice sets, supplemented by a “neither option” to reduce forced bias. Tasks were distributed across six survey versions, so each respondent evaluated six paired comparisons (~10 minutes). This blocked design balanced respondent burden with statistical coverage, ensuring that all attributes and levels were adequately represented across the sample.

3. 3. Survey Administration

Data collection took place between January and March 2025 through tablet-based intercept surveys. Fieldwork was scheduled between 08:00 and 13:00, aligning with peak foot traffic but avoiding late afternoon heat, a practical consideration in Muscat’s climate. Sampling sites were selected to capture diversity in user groups, including university campuses, office clusters, retail centers, and residential neighborhoods along the Sultan Qaboos Highway corridor.

To enhance response validity, enumerators introduced the study with clear instructions and informed consent, followed by a practice task to familiarize participants with the visual-preference interface. A pilot survey with 25 respondents confirmed that average completion time (≈ 12 minutes) and task comprehension were satisfactory. The final dataset included 300 valid responses after excluding speeders (completion under 3 minutes) and invariant choosers (always selecting the same option).

Stakeholders were stratified into residents and commercial premises users, reflecting the dual user base of TOD station areas. Residents represent the long-term beneficiaries of transit and walkable streetscapes, while business owners and employees embody shorter-term economic interests often overlooked in TOD planning.

3. 4. Basic Analytical Model

The choice experiment data were analysed using the multinomial logit (MNL) model, a standard tool for stated-preference analysis [61]. For respondent i selecting alternative j from choice set t, the utility function was expressed as:

(1)

where X_ijkt are coded attribute levels, β_k are parameters to be estimated, and ε_ijt follows an i.i.d. extreme-value type I distribution. The probability of choosing alternative j is therefore

(2)

Models were estimated in NLOGIT 6 with robust standard errors. Standard diagnostics such as log-likelihood values, McFadden’s pseudo-R², and likelihood-ratio tests were employed to assess fit and compare nested specifications. The MNL framework was chosen for its ability to estimate marginal rates of substitution between design attributes, a central aim of this research.

3. 5. Case-Study Rationale

The selection of Muscat’s Sultan Qaboos Highway as the focal corridor was strategic (Figure 2), as it hosts multiple planned BRT stations while exemplifying the tension between car-centric arterial design for transit-oriented urbanism. The four study nodes, Ruwi, Burj Al Sahwa, Ghala, and Al Mabailah, represent distinct morphologies that range from traditional commercial-fabric to peripheral suburban growth, thereby enabling meaningful comparison across diverse contexts.

3. 6. Questionnaire Structure

The online questionnaire was carefully designed to ensure clarity, consistency, and ease of completion. It was organized into three main sections. The first section provided consent and instructions, where participants were informed about the purpose of the study, the voluntary nature of their involvement, and assurances of anonymity and confidentiality. This step was important to build trust and to comply with ethical research standards. The second section presented the choice tasks, where each respondent evaluated six paired comparisons featuring photorealistic streetscape scenarios developed for this study. These scenarios visually represented variations across the nine TOD-related attributes, allowing participants to make intuitive choices. An additional “neither option” was included to prevent forced responses and reflect real-world decision-making. The third section contained follow-up stated-preference items designed to capture broader perceptions and attitudes toward issues such as walkability, transit accessibility, and overall street comfort. This combination of choice experiments and attitudinal questions enabled a richer understanding of both revealed preferences and underlying values.

An example of a choice card is shown in Figure 3, illustrating how respondents were asked to compare and evaluate alternatives. The survey design drew inspiration from earlier TOD preference studies [62],  [63] but was specifically tailored to Muscat’s urban, cultural, and climatic context. By integrating high-quality visualizations with structured decision tasks, the questionnaire ensured that participants could engage meaningfully with complex design trade-offs, thereby enhancing the reliability and validity of the collected data.

4. Model Estimation and Goodness of Fit

Separate multinomial logit (MNL) models were estimated for the two key stakeholder groups—, residents and commercial-premises users, —at each of the four prospective TOD station areas: Al Mabailah, Burj Al Sahwa, Ghala, and Ruwi. This stratified modelling framework enabled the identification of group-specific valuations of microscale streetscape attributes while ensuring comparability across locations. For the resident strata, McFadden’s pseudo-R² values were 0.227 for Al Mabailah, 0.238 for Burj Al Sahwa, 0.251 for Ghala, and 0.243 for Ruwi. For the commercial strata, the corresponding pseudo-R² values were 0.233, 0.244, 0.247, and 0.241, respectively. All coefficients lie within the 0.20–0.40 interval typically regarded as acceptable in stated-preference modelling, indicating that the models capture a substantial proportion of the systematic variation in choices. In every case, the full-model log-likelihood demonstrated clear improvement over the null specification, providing further confirmation that the inclusion of the nine built-environment attributes significantly enhances explanatory power.

4. 1. Heatmap Construction and Interpretation

The heatmap was constructed using the estimated coefficients derived from the multinomial logit (MNL) models for both stakeholder groups, residents and commercial users, across the four TOD station areas, as shown in Figure 4. Each design parameter was coded into the model, and its corresponding coefficient estimates were extracted. These coefficients were then translated into a colour gradient, with positive values represented in shades of green, negative values in shades of red, and values close to zero in yellow. This colour scaling provides a direct visual cue of the relative weight and direction of preferences. Statistical significance was denoted by asterisks, where p < 0.10, p < 0.05, and p < 0.01, ensuring clarity on the robustness of estimated effects.

Reading the heatmap involves interpreting rows as the nine microscale TOD design attributes, each with multiple levels (e.g., sidewalk width at 1 m versus 3 m), while columns represent the eight stakeholder–station combinations (residents and commercial users at each of the four sites). Each cell corresponds to a model coefficient, where higher positive values signal stronger preferences for a particular design feature, and more negative values indicate dis-preferences. The colour gradient enhances interpretability, enabling a rapid assessment of which attributes are viewed favourably or unfavourably across contexts. Finally, the integration of significance markers allows the distinction between robust and weaker effects. This visualization condenses complex numeric results into a comparative, easily scannable format, highlighting areas of convergence or divergence in user preferences, which are explored in greater depth in the subsequent discussion section.

4. 2. Interpretation of Attribute Levels

4. 2. 1. Residential Users

The results  shows that among all evaluated attributes, sidewalk provision stands out as the single strongest driver of preference (Figure 4). Across every site, residents expressed sharp disutility for narrow sidewalks of only 1 meter, with statistically significant negative coefficients of –0.925 (t = –3.23) in Al Mabailah, –1.014 (t = –3.96) in Burj Al Sahwa, –0.862 (t = –3.62) in Ghala, and –0.894 (t = –3.82) in Ruwi. These figures clearly signal dissatisfaction with restricted pedestrian space, echoing concerns over crowding, informal vending, and compromised safety. By contrast, the provision of wide 3-meter sidewalks generated the most positive response in the dataset: 1.569 (t = 4.06) in Al Mabailah, 1.101 (t = 4.00) in Burj Al Sahwa, 1.480 (t = 4.00) in Ghala, and 0.802 (t = 3.53) in Ruwi. This consistent enthusiasm reflects the value residents place on accessibility, comfort, and the capacity to accommodate both movement and social interaction—concerns that have been amplified in the wake of the pandemic.

Tree-canopy cover emerged as another critical determinant of perceived quality. The absence of shading (0% canopy) was strongly rejected, particularly in Ghala (–1.170, t = –4.29) and Ruwi (–0.858, t = –3.39), with Burj Al Sahwa (–0.826, t = –3.09) and Al Mabailah (–0.516, t = –1.98) also showing clear disutility. Conversely, introducing 40% canopy cover produced significant positive utilities, including 1.280 (t = 5.12) in Al Mabailah and 0.933 (t = 3.93) in Ruwi. These results affirm that shading is perceived as essential infrastructure in Muscat’s hot-arid climate, where tree-lined streets transform otherwise hostile corridors into comfortable, walkable environments.

Pedestrian-crossing frequency further underscored the centrality of walkability. Crossings at 25-meter intervals were strongly favoured across all stations: 0.807 (t = 3.46) in Al Mabailah, 0.897 (t = 3.75) in Burj Al Sahwa, 0.955 (t = 4.03) in Ghala, and 0.912 (t = 3.89) in Ruwi. Crossings every 50 meters were generally perceived as neutral, except in Burj Al Sahwa, where they were actively disfavoured (–0.488, t = –2.06). Respondents here described the BRT corridor as a “barrier,” highlighting the need for frequent, safe pedestrian connections in wide arterial contexts.

Provision for cycling revealed more localized variation. The removal of a protected cycle lane produced significant disutility in Burj Al Sahwa (–0.619, t = –2.44) and moderate disutility in Ghala (–0.409, t = –1.61). Substituting with painted lanes restored utility in Al Mabailah (0.841, t = 3.59), Ghala (0.860, t = 3.53), and Ruwi (0.905, t = 3.67), but had only a marginal, statistically insignificant effect in Burj Al Sahwa (0.284, t = 1.18). This suggests that in high-speed suburban corridors, physical separation remains a prerequisite for residents to feel safe.

Façade treatment also exerted a strong influence. Blank walls were consistently unpopular, particularly in Burj Al Sahwa (–0.842, t = –3.41), followed by Ghala (–0.499, t = –1.94), Al Mabailah (–0.470, t = –1.89), and Ruwi (–0.285, t = –1.12). Moderately glazed façades, by contrast, generated high positive utilities, with values of 1.028 (t = 4.22) in Al Mabailah, 0.877 (t = 3.64) in Ghala, 0.986 (t = 3.90) in Ruwi, and 0.637 (t = 2.76) in Burj Al Sahwa. Residents interpreted these frontages as visually engaging yet respectful of privacy, improving both passive surveillance and perceived street vitality.

Preferences regarding building height were more nuanced. Low-rise buildings (1–2 storeys) were weakly disfavoured in Burj Al Sahwa (–0.410, t = –1.71) and Ghala (–0.457, t = –1.81), where residents associated them with land underutilization near transit. In Al Mabailah and Ruwi, coefficients were neutral (0.083, t = 0.35; 0.056, t = 0.23). No statistically significant preference emerged for mid-rise development (3–4 storeys), indicating that built form is less salient than comfort-oriented attributes such as shade, crossings, and sidewalks.

Land-use mix preferences revealed distinct patterns. In Ruwi (0.715, t = 2.91) and Al Mabailah (0.383, t = 1.70), residents clearly valued a 70:30 residential-commercial balance, while Ghala and Burj Al Sahwa showed no significant response. Purely residential environments were moderately disfavoured in Burj Al Sahwa (–0.434, t = –1.83). These findings emphasize the desirability of small-scale commercial activity in transit-served neighbourhoods, where access to local shops and services supports vibrancy and daily convenience.

Parking design also influenced perceptions. Inset parking bays were consistently preferred, generating positive utilities of 0.665 (t = 2.85) in Al Mabailah, 0.578 (t = 2.43) in Burj Al Sahwa, 0.701 (t = 2.79) in Ghala, and 0.570 (t = 2.36) in Ruwi. Continuous curbside parking, by contrast, was viewed neutrally or negatively, with concerns that it obstructs pedestrian circulation and contributes to congestion. Inset bays were instead regarded as orderly, safe, and complementary to active sidewalks.

Finally, building setbacks elicited mixed reactions. Large setbacks of six meters or more were weakly negative across all sites, with respondents perceiving them as a loss of valuable urban frontage. A moderate setback of 3–5 meters was only positively valued in Burj Al Sahwa (0.508, t = 2.06), where residents saw benefits in transitional landscaping or small forecourts along wide arterials.

In sum, resident preferences across Muscat’s prospective TOD station areas converge on a clear set of priorities: wide, shaded sidewalks, frequent crossings, and active, transparent frontages define high-quality streetscapes. Features such as inset parking bays and mixed land use further enhance neighborhood appeal, while attributes like building height and setbacks matter less, except in specific contexts.

4. 2. 2. Commercial-Premises User Preferences

The results shows that sidewalk design was again the most influential attribute in commercial premises like in residential areas, confirming its central role in shaping successful TOD environments (Figure 4). Narrow 1-meter sidewalks were strongly rejected, generating negative utilities of –0.881 (t = –3.19) in Al Mabailah, –0.965 (t = –3.72) in Burj Al Sahwa, –0.892 (t = –3.44) in Ghala, and –0.901 (t = –3.60) in Ruwi. Conversely, 3-meter sidewalks produced highly positive utilities across all stations: 1.432 (t = 4.08) in Al Mabailah, 1.257 (t = 4.11) in Burj Al Sahwa, 1.387 (t = 4.02) in Ghala, and 0.990 (t = 3.61) in Ruwi. These results highlight that commercial users, much like residents, view spacious sidewalks as essential for pedestrian flow, street vending, and overall customer accessibility.

Tree-canopy cover also ranked highly in shaping preferences, though with slightly different emphases. A complete absence of canopy was heavily penalized, most sharply in Ruwi (–1.096, t = –4.10) and Ghala (–0.962, t = –3.71), while Burj Al Sahwa (–0.721, t = –2.94) and Al Mabailah (–0.534, t = –2.08) also showed significant disutility. The introduction of 40% canopy cover increased perceived utility substantially: 1.181 (t = 4.76) in Al Mabailah, 0.972 (t = 3.91) in Ruwi, and similarly positive though slightly smaller coefficients in Ghala and Burj Al Sahwa. For businesses, shaded environments not only attract pedestrian activity but also extend the duration of customer visits, reinforcing their economic value.

Crossing frequency exerted a pronounced influence on commercial perceptions. Close crossings at 25-meter intervals were consistently valued: 0.765 (t = 3.28) in Al Mabailah, 0.889 (t = 3.66) in Burj Al Sahwa, 0.934 (t = 3.98) in Ghala, and 0.894 (t = 3.82) in Ruwi. At Burj Al Sahwa, crossings every 50 meters were perceived as significantly negative (–0.457, t = –2.01), reflecting concerns that limited crossing points restrict customer accessibility across wide arterial roads. These findings confirm that commercial users see walkability and permeability of the street network as prerequisites for sustaining viable business activity.

Cycling provision revealed more site-specific patterns. The removal of a protected cycle track produced significant negative responses in Burj Al Sahwa (–0.598, t = –2.39) and in Ghala (–0.421, t = –1.65), while Ruwi and Al Mabailah were more neutral. Substitution with a painted lane restored much of the lost utility in Al Mabailah (0.819, t = 3.53), Ghala (0.843, t = 3.45), and Ruwi (0.884, t = 3.60). In Burj Al Sahwa, however, this effect remained statistically weak (0.271, t = 1.14), suggesting that in higher-speed suburban contexts, customers and business owners alike demand fully segregated infrastructure for safe cycling access.

Façade treatment was another attribute with clear business implications. Blank walls were uniformly penalized, with the most negative response in Burj Al Sahwa (–0.812, t = –3.28), followed by Ghala (–0.482, t = –1.88), Al Mabailah (–0.454, t = –1.80), and Ruwi (–0.268, t = –1.09). Moderately glazed façades, on the other hand, scored positively, generating 1.002 (t = 4.11) in Al Mabailah, 0.866 (t = 3.52) in Ghala, 0.954 (t = 3.84) in Ruwi, and 0.619 (t = 2.67) in Burj Al Sahwa. These results suggest that businesses recognize the importance of active, semi-transparent street edges for attracting customers, enhancing visual interest, and supporting perceptions of safety.

Responses to building height again varied by location. In Burj Al Sahwa (–0.396, t = –1.65) and Ghala (–0.441, t = –1.74), very low-rise forms (1–2 storeys) were disfavoured, while in Al Mabailah (0.072, t = 0.31) and Ruwi (0.048, t = 0.20), they were seen as relatively neutral. Mid-rise options (3–4 storeys) did not generate significant preferences, indicating that for commercial users, building scale is less important than the quality of immediate pedestrian and retail interfaces.

Land-use mix preferences aligned closely with business viability concerns. Commercial users in Ruwi (0.702, t = 2.82) and Al Mabailah (0.371, t = 1.62) expressed strong support for a 70:30 residential-commercial balance, reflecting demand for consistent footfall near transit nodes. By contrast, Ghala and Burj Al Sahwa showed weaker or non-significant responses, though purely residential environments were mildly disfavoured in Burj Al Sahwa (–0.418, t = –1.76). These patterns highlight that, in denser and more central locations, mixed-use balance is critical for sustaining local commerce.

Parking layout emerged as another consistently important factor. Inset parking bays were rated highly positive: 0.643 (t = 2.77) in Al Mabailah, 0.561 (t = 2.36) in Burj Al Sahwa, 0.682 (t = 2.71) in Ghala, and 0.552 (t = 2.29) in Ruwi. Continuous curbside parking was neutral or slightly negative, particularly in Al Mabailah and Burj Al Sahwa, where business owners noted its tendency to obstruct walkways and disrupt customer access. Inset bays, by contrast, were described as safe, orderly, and supportive of short-term commercial activity.

Finally, setbacks produced mixed responses. Large setbacks (≥ 6 m) were consistently viewed as inefficient, diluting customer visibility and weakening the street edge. A moderate setback (3–5 m) was positively received only in Burj Al Sahwa (0.496, t = 2.01), where wide arterials made some buffer space desirable. In other stations, commercial users placed greater value on direct street frontage for visibility and customer engagement.

Commercial stakeholders across all four TOD station areas expressed strong alignment with residents on the primacy of shaded, wide, and permeable pedestrian environments. However, their preferences more directly reflect business needs: active façades, inset parking bays, and balanced land-use mixes were highlighted as essential for commercial success. While features such as building height and setbacks were less consistently important, the findings confirm that for commercial users, vibrant, accessible, and customer-friendly streetscapes are the bedrock of TOD viability.

4. 2. 3. Comparative Synthesis of Resident and Commercial User Preferences

The conjoint analysis across four TOD station areas reveals both strong commonalities and important divergences between residents and commercial-premises users (Figure 5).  At the most fundamental level, both groups converge around the centrality of pedestrian-oriented design. Wide sidewalks, frequent crossings, and shaded environments emerged as top priorities across all strata, underscoring a universal demand for walkable and thermally comfortable public spaces. In this sense, both groups articulated a shared vision of TOD corridors as people-centric places rather than automobile-dominated arterials.

Yet, subtle differences emerge when priorities are disaggregated. For residents, the strongest preferences emphasized daily usability and comfort, including sidewalk width, tree canopy, and pedestrian permeability. These elements were consistently rated as essential to safe and comfortable mobility, social interaction, and public health. In contrast, while commercial users valued the same core elements, their utility structure revealed an added layer of business-oriented concerns. Active façades, inset parking bays, and balanced land-use mixes were particularly important for sustaining customer visibility, accessibility, and economic vibrancy.

Cycling infrastructure provides another useful point of comparison. Residents, especially in Burj Al Sahwa and Ghala, displayed clear sensitivity to the removal of protected cycling lanes, though substitution with painted lanes was generally acceptable. Commercial users expressed similar patterns but with stronger variation by context, suggesting that in higher-speed arterial environments, customers and businesses alike expect robust cycling infrastructure as a signal of safety and accessibility.

Building form attributes, such as height and setbacks, were comparatively less influential for both groups but diverged subtly in emphasis. Residents were generally indifferent to moderate variations in height, though low-rise forms were viewed negatively in Burj Al Sahwa and Ghala. Commercial users mirrored this indifference but highlighted setbacks as a critical factor affecting storefront visibility. In their view, deep setbacks diluted the street edge and hindered customer interaction, whereas direct or slightly buffered frontages were more conducive to commercial vitality.

Land-use mix further illustrates the divergence in stakeholder perspectives. Residents in Ruwi and Al Mabailah preferred a 70:30 residential-commercial balance, valuing nearby amenities without overwhelming neighborhood character. Commercial users expressed similar preferences, but framed them in terms of sustained pedestrian footfall and economic viability. In Burj Al Sahwa and Ghala, by contrast, land-use preferences were weaker and more context-dependent, reflecting differences in development patterns and market expectations.

Taken together, these findings suggest that residents and commercial users share a common baseline of walkability and comfort but diverge when it comes to the finer details that shape daily life versus business activity. Residents prioritize safe, cool, and connected environments for living, while commercial users stress the importance of active, accessible, and economically supportive streetscapes. Recognizing these overlapping yet distinct priorities is crucial for TOD design in Muscat: successful implementation must balance liveability and business viability to foster both social inclusion and economic resilience.

4.3. Relative Importance of Streetscape Attributes and Sensitivity of Stakeholder Preferences

To better synthesise the results across the four TOD station areas, the part-worth utilities were standardised into relative importance scores (Figure 6). This approach compares the range of estimated utilities within each attribute to the total utility range across all attributes, providing a proportional measure of how strongly each design dimension influenced choice. For residents, the three most dominant attributes were:

1. Sidewalk width – consistently the most influential determinant, accounting for approximately 24–28% of explained preference variation across sites.
2. Tree-canopy cover – ranked second, capturing 20–23% of total influence, with heat mitigation clearly shaping walkability perceptions.
3. Pedestrian-crossing frequency – ranked third, explaining 15–18% of utility shifts, particularly salient along wide arterial segments such as Burj Al Sahwa.

Secondary but still meaningful attributes included façade articulation, inset parking bays, and land-use mix (each ~8–12% importance). Building height, setbacks, and cycling infrastructure exhibited lower relative impacts, rarely exceeding 6–7% of overall preference weight. To visualise how these priorities differ across user groups and station contexts, a sensitivity diagram was developed (Figure 7). The diagram maps the preference weights (relative importance scores) for residents and commercial-premises users side by side. Each attribute is plotted on the vertical axis, with horizontal bars showing proportional weights per group. This enables quick comparison of stakeholder sensitivities:

• Residents placed the highest emphasis on sidewalks, tree shading, and crossings, reflecting daily reliance on walkable access and thermal comfort.
• Commercial users assigned slightly more weight to land-use mix and parking arrangements, consistent with their concern for customer accessibility and short-term vehicle access.
• For attributes like façade articulation, both groups displayed moderate but convergent preferences, underscoring the shared value of active, transparent frontages for safety and vibrancy.

The sensitivity diagram does not report new statistical outcomes but translates model coefficients into comparative weights. This facilitates a policy-relevant understanding of which design interventions will yield the largest marginal gains in user satisfaction, and where trade-offs between stakeholder groups may arise.

5. Policy Implications for Muscat’s BRT Rollout

The results carry clear implications for Muscat’s BRT rollout. The most consistent finding is residents’ strong valuation of walkability, requiring a rethink of the pedestrian realm along corridors such as Sultan Qaboos Highway. Narrow, encroached sidewalks were rejected, while wider, unobstructed walkways emerged as central to public support for transit-oriented urbanism. Investments in BRT must therefore be matched by commitments to pedestrian space, universal accessibility, and enforcement against sidewalk obstruction.

Thermal comfort is equally decisive. In a hot-arid climate, shaded streets are essential infrastructure for encouraging walking and transit use. Support for tree canopy and shaded routes underscores the need to embed climate-sensitive design such as landscaping, arcades, and architectural shading into all BRT corridors.

Pedestrian connectivity also shapes perceived usability. Stations on wide arterials were often viewed as “barriers,” and respondents favored closely spaced, safe crossings that enable seamless movement. BRT planning should be integrated with a citywide connectivity framework that prioritizes frequent, accessible crossings; otherwise, infrastructure risks reinforcing existing mobility divides.

Active street edges and mixed use are critical to station-area vitality. Respondents preferred moderately glazed frontages and ground-floor commercial activity, while rejecting blank walls and deep setbacks. Zoning and building codes should be updated to enable small-scale retail and services around stations, strengthening ridership, neighborhood life, and passive surveillance.

Cycling infrastructure showed moderate but prominent importance. In faster suburban segments, residents expect protected tracks; prioritizing safe, connected links to stations such as cycle parking and last-mile options can cultivate future demand and reinforce multimodal mobility.

Moreover, curb and edge design matter. Inset bays were valued for reducing sidewalk conflicts, whereas continuous curbside parking was disruptive. Deep setbacks weakened enclosure and pedestrian experience. The BRT rollout should pair careful curb management with well-defined street edges to create a coherent, transit-supportive urban form.

The success will depend not only on efficient vehicles and stations but on an integrated public realm that reflects resident and business preferences. Wider sidewalks, thermal comfort, pedestrian connectivity, active frontages, and context-sensitive cycling are relatively low-cost, high-impact interventions that can determine whether BRT catalyzes urban transformation or remains an isolated project.

Our stated-preference utilities reflect present conditions and should be treated as a time-bound baseline. Preferences are likely to shift with cohort turnover, technology, and climate stressors. Younger travellers and micro mobility adopters (e-bikes, scooters) will likely place higher utility on protected, continuous cycling networks, end-of-trip facilities, and low-speed access streets; the rise of hybrid/remote work may reduce the salience of peak-hour delay while heightening last-mile quality. Aging populations will increase weights on universal-design features such as shorter crossings, benches, tactile cues, lighting, and shade continuity. Policy packages (Vision Zero speed management, curb-management for delivery platforms, congestion pricing/TDM) can also reweight trade-offs, as can resilience planning in hot-arid contexts where cool materials, trees, arcades, and thermally comfortable street edges become decisive attributes. To keep guidance current, we recommend re-fielding the survey every 3–5 years, estimating cohort-specific models (e.g., interactions with age and mode familiarity), and augmenting SP data with revealed-preference counts from before/after pilots. Scenario testing with mixed logit and periodic willingness-to-pay re-estimation can then update TOD design guidance as travel patterns and climate risks evolve.

6.Conclusion

This study has examined the potential for transit-oriented development (TOD) to support Muscat’s transition toward a more sustainable and accessible urban form in the context of the planned bus rapid transit (BRT) system. By employing a stated-preference approach and testing microscale streetscape attributes across four station areas, the research has highlighted that both residents and commercial users place considerable weight on design features that enhance walkability, comfort, and safety. These preferences, particularly for wider sidewalks, shaded corridors, and frequent pedestrian crossings, demonstrate that the everyday usability of the public realm is central to the acceptance and long-term success of transit investments in hot-arid environments.

The results further indicate that TOD in Muscat cannot be approached solely as a matter of transport engineering or land-use density. Rather, its success depends on integrating human-scale design considerations with larger policy frameworks. Features such as active street frontages, inset parking, and modest land-use mixes were consistently valued, reflecting a desire for lively, safe, and multifunctional environments around stations. At the same time, attributes such as building height and setbacks showed more variable impacts, underscoring that TOD guidelines must be sensitive to local context and adaptable to different morphological conditions. This reinforces the principle that TOD is not a universal template but a flexible framework requiring careful tailoring to cultural, climatic, and institutional realities.

Beyond its immediate relevance to Muscat, the study contributes to a broader body of international evidence affirming that the effectiveness of TOD is determined as much by microscale urban design as by large-scale infrastructure provision. While global literature often emphasizes density and land-use diversity as cornerstones of TOD, this research shows that in contexts like the Gulf, street-level qualities such as shade, crossing safety, sidewalk space, may exert a more decisive influence on user behavior. This nuance expands the global understanding of TOD and emphasizes that planning for livability and comfort is inseparable from planning for sustainable mobility.

From a policy perspective, the findings highlight both opportunities and risks. On the one hand, Muscat’s BRT rollout provides an unprecedented opportunity to recalibrate the city’s development trajectory away from automobile dependency. On the other, without parallel reforms in urban design, zoning, and governance, the system risks falling short of its transformative potential. The evidence shows that user preferences are clear, consistent, and in line with principles of pedestrian-friendly urbanism. The task now is to translate these insights into regulatory, design, and investment decisions that embed walkability and livability into the very fabric of Muscat’s urban growth.

This study demonstrates that the promise of TOD in Muscat rests not only on building efficient transit but also on cultivating vibrant, comfortable, and human-scaled environments that people want to use. By foregrounding user preferences and contextual realities, it underscores that TOD is both a transport strategy and an urban development agenda. If effectively implemented, it has the capacity to reshape Muscat into a more inclusive, sustainable, and resilient city, setting a precedent for other Middle Eastern cities confronting similar challenges.

References